The Ins and Outs of Evacuation Planning
By Donald Schmidt, Marsh Inc.

Evacuation Planning
Every building needs to have an evacuation plan. Not only is this a best practice, it's also the law in many cases. OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.38, Employee Emergency Plans and Fire Prevention Plans, (for employers of ten or more) and local, county, or state fire codes require evacuation plans.

Development of a good evacuation plan involves an assessment of building construction, occupancy, staffing, and other factors. These include:
Building layout
Identification of hazards within a building
Number and concentrations of occupants including number and location of those with special needs
Occupant notification systems
Building utility systems (especially ventilation)
Fire protection systems (e.g., sprinklers, smoke control systems, etc.)
Means of egress system

Plan development should include preparation of building floor plans with clearly marked exit travel paths to the primary exits, with secondary exits also marked.

Those parts of the building that may have a higher than average likelihood of terrorist incident, should be identified - such as the mail center, loading dock, and visitor reception areas. If these areas are targeted, alternate evacuation routes should be planned.

Areas that hold large numbers of individuals, such as auditoriums, cafeterias, and conference facilities, require extra attention to ensure there is adequate means of egress to handle the maximum number of occupants. These areas are also potential targets because of the concentration of people in one area.

Special Considerations
Occupants with special needs should be identified in advance. In most cases this must be done voluntarily to protect the privacy of the individual. Someone with an obvious disability will require assistance and plans should address the necessary aid. Plans should also anticipate the possibility that there will be others who have not identified themselves as having special needs, but who will need assistance. These could include persons with arthritis or temporary conditions such as a sprained ankle or a broken leg. Airborne contaminants may reduce the stamina of individuals with heart disease or emphysema to the point where assistance will be needed to descend stairs.

High-rise buildings present two challenges-the number of occupants and the time necessary to evacuate all occupants safely. Evacuation plans for high-rise buildings require an assessment of the building and its means of egress as well as close coordination with the building's emergency response team and the local fire department. When a fire alarm system is activated, full evacuation of a high-rise building is not typically ordered. Initially, the floor where the alarm sounds and two floors above the fire floor are evacuated. The next zone to be evacuated would include the two floors below the fire floor in order to be used as staging areas by rescue personnel. The number and location of floors to be evacuated is dependent upon the arrangement of the building's ventilation system and any vertical penetrations in the floors. In some instances the evacuation plan may call for all floors within the air handling zone to be evacuated and severe fires would require full evacuation.

Evacuation plans should identify areas of refuge. These may include oversized landings within a stairwell or fire and smoke compartments within a floor. The areas of refuge should be equipped with a means of communication in order to allow those awaiting rescue to communicate with the evacuation leader or firefighters. The number of persons that can safely occupy the area of refuge and the circumstances when it would be used should be addressed in the evacuation plan. In no circumstances should the evacuation plan direct occupants to the roof.

Elevators should not be used during an evacuation due to fire, smoke, or airborne hazards. During a fire, elevators may be recalled automatically to the first floor. Older elevators may stop at the fire floor thereby jeopardizing the safety of elevator occupants. Use of elevators could spread an airborne hazard.

The evacuation plan should be designed to overcome any limitations in the building's means of egress. Limitations could include limited audibility of the building's fire alarm or occupant notification systems, inadequate complement of exits, poorly marked exits, obstructions or impediments, long travel distances, or dead-ends. Every effort should be expended to rectify these problem conditions before an emergency. However, if limitations are identified, which can not be eliminated or reduced, then the evacuation plans should identify a means of dealing with the limitation such as the use of extra floor marshals to move occupants along or to redirect them to overcome bottlenecks.

Multi-tenanted buildings require close coordination with the building's manager to ensure building plans and tenant plans work seamlessly. Close coordination and effective real-time communication during an evacuation is essential.

Evacuation Team
Authority to order an evacuation should be vested in the leader of the emergency response team, head of security, or other individuals who are able to quickly assess a potential threat and determine if an evacuation is required. This will help to facilitate a safe and efficient evacuation process.

A team of individuals is necessary to properly coordinate the evacuation of a building with a sizable number of occupants. The following are suggested roles for the evacuation team:
Evacuation Leader. The evacuation leader may be the head of security, engineering, facilities, or another department. The leader will probably not be the same as the incident commander who is responsible for directing multiple teams during an emergency. The evacuation leader reports to the incident commander. An effective means of communication, such as two-way radios, should be provided for evacuation leader to communicate with the incident commander at the command post.
Floor Wardens. Individuals should be assigned to coordinate the evacuation of a defined part of a floor to ensure the safe evacuation of everyone within the sector. Wardens must ensure that all areas have been evacuated including restrooms, storage rooms, and any areas where the occupants might not hear the evacuation order or alarm system.
Stairwell Monitor. The stairwell monitor is responsible for holding open the door while remaining out of the path of oncoming evacuees. The monitor should inform evacuees where to descend to, such as the level of exit discharge (ground floor) or to a predetermined intermediate floor.
Elevator Monitor. The elevator monitor prevents evacuees from using elevators and directs them to the nearest stairwell. Both passenger and service elevator lobbies should be monitored.
Aides for Evacuees with Special Needs. Pairing a capable individual with those needing special assistance will help speed evacuation. These aides, or "buddies", should be assigned to assist their charge to an area of refuge where they will await rescue. Buddies should be located in close proximity to the person they will assist so they can establish contact quickly. Alternate buddies should be considered to ensure all persons with special needs have someone to assist them.
Assembly Monitor(s). A person or persons should be assigned to the assembly area to record the names of persons who arrive at the assembly point. Their job is to confirm that everyone who was in the building has evacuated. These monitor(s) should have access to the employee roster and visitor logs to allow easy "check-off" accounting of persons as they arrive at the assembly point.

Evacuation Scenarios
The decision to evacuate part or all of the facility depends upon the nature of the emergency, the area affected, and the area that potentially could be affected. For example, release of a chemical or biological agent inside a building or a bombing would call for evacuation. However, an incident that occurs outside the building and does not threaten the building or its occupants may not require evacuation. In this case evacuation of the building may actually place evacuees into harm's way.

It is important to keep in mind that no evacuation plan is perfect since every possibility can not be anticipated. Therefore, the incident commander has to assess the threat to the building occupants and make the best decision possible. It should be noted that occupants will tend to make their own decisions if they have had prior experience in an emergency, or if they perceive a lack of leadership. A well thought-out evacuation plan that is well communicated and practiced should help to reduce the risk to occupants.

Evacuation Routes and Assembly Areas
Evacuation routes should be established for each floor with maps that indicate the location of the primary and secondary assembly areas.

Primary and secondary assembly areas should be separated from each other by direction (e.g., north and south) so both are not exposed to the same event. They should be located away from the staging area for emergency vehicles, a minimum of a quarter mile apart, and both should not be in the same path as prevailing winds.

Each assembly area should be given an easily remembered name-such as the name of a local landmark located adjacent to the spot. Maps showing assembly areas should be included with any Emergency Information wallet card given to employees.

Occupant Notification System
The type and operating instructions for any occupant notification system should be noted in the plan. This could include an emergency voice communication system that is designed for higher reliability and use during an emergency. It could also be a less reliable public address system. In order to respond appropriately, all building occupants should be familiar with the sound of the alarm system used to call for evacuation.

Shelter-In-Place
An airborne hazard (e.g., chemical, biological, or radiological) outside of a building may require an alternative protective action - sheltering-in-place. For instance, if a hazardous plume is moving towards an area and there is insufficient time to evacuate the area before the plume arrives, then sheltering may be required. It is a temporary strategy designed to be used when it is safer to remain inside rather than evacuate to the outside. Because of air infiltration, sheltering-in-place is designed for a one to two hour period only.

As a protective action, sheltering-in-place was originally developed for properties in close proximity to hazardous materials sites where an uncontrolled release of hazardous chemicals could result in a plume moving across an area. With today's heightened risk of terrorist attack, shelter-in-place is now applicable to urban centers as well. In a major metropolitan area, large numbers of people in mid and high-rise buildings can't be evacuated in short order.

Shelter-in-place procedures should be developed for this possibility. Inside rooms, such as conference rooms or break rooms, which are large enough to allow ten square feet per person, are good choices. Preferably the rooms should be above the ground floor, windowless, and have a minimal number of vents and doors that will have to be sealed to keep out infiltrating airborne hazards.

Each sheltering location should be equipped with the following supplies:
Flashlights and batteries
First aid kits
Multiple means of communications - landline and cellular telephones dedicated for emergency use as well as two-way radios, if available
Battery powered radio to receive official information
Roster of employees to identify potential missing persons

In the event of an external airborne hazard, individuals should be assigned to seal off the building by closing doors and windows. The location of all the controls to shut down heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems should be identified and marked. It is important to:
Determine how long it takes to shut down the air handling and air intake units
Assign knowledgeable people to this task
Put a procedure in place to promptly notify the responsible parties
Ensure that the shut down can be completed within the required amount of time

Conclusion
Every facility should develop an evacuation plan to safeguard occupants during an emergency. Facilities located in close proximity to hazardous chemical facilities or transportation routes should also develop shelter-in-place plans. Plans should be based on the features of the building and the possible scenarios that occupants may face and should be practiced by all occupants under the supervision of a well-trained emergency organization. An evacuation plan that is well thought out, communicated, and executed effectively should help to reduce the risk to occupants.

About the Author Donald L. Schmitdt is the National Practice Leader for Emergency Response Planning within the Risk Consulting Practice at Marsh Inc (www.marshriskconsulting.com).

About the Author

Donald L. Schmidt (Donald.L.Schmidt@marsh.com) is the National Practice Leader for Emergency Response Planning within the Risk Consulting Practice at Marsh Inc (www.marshriskconsulting.com)